ETIOLOGICAL THEORIES
Psychodynamics
Psychosis is the result of a weak ego. The development of the ego has been inhibited by a symbiotic parent/child relationship. Because the ego is weak, the use of ego defense mechanisms in times of extreme anxiety is maladaptive, and behaviors are often representations of the id segment of the personality.
Biological
Certain genetic factors may be involved in the susceptibility to develop some forms of this psychotic disorder. Individuals are at higher risk for the disorder if there is a familial pattern of involvement (parents, siblings, other relatives). Schizophrenia has been determined to be a sporadic illness (which means genes cannot currently be followed from generation to generation). It is an autosomal dominant trait. However, most scientists agree that what is inherited is a vulnerability or predisposition, which may be due to an enzyme defect or some other biochemical abnormality, a subtle neurological deficit, or some other factor or combination of factors. This predisposition, in combination with environmental factors, results in development of the disease. Some research implies that these disorders may be a birth defect, occurring in the hippocampus region of the brain. The studies show a disordering of the pyramidal cells in the brains of schizophrenics, while the cells in the brains of nonschizophrenic individuals appear to be arranged in an orderly fashion. Ventricular brain ratio (VBR) or disproportionately small brain (or specific areas of the brain) may be inherited and/or congenital. The cause can be a virus, lack of oxygen, birth trauma, severe maternal malnutrition, or cellular damage resulting from an RhD immune response (mother negative/fetus positive).
A biochemical theory suggests the involvement of elevated levels of the neurotransmitter dopamine, which is thought to produce the symptoms of overactivity and fragmentation of associations that are commonly observed in psychoses.
Although overall occurrence is relatively equal between males and females, resources report a predominant male bias with two-thirds of young adults with serious mental illnesses being male. Boys react more strongly than girls to stress and conflicts in the family home, and are more vulnerable to infantile autism. A significantly larger number of males than females exhibit obsessive and suicidal behaviors, fetishism, and schizophrenia. Schizophrenia develops earlier in males, and they respond less well to treatment and have less chance of recovery and return to normal life than females. The incidence in females may have more familial origins. The different brain organization of men and women, and the effect of sex hormones on brain growth are likely to result in subtle differences that define the “scope and range of sex differences in the incidence, clinical presentation, and course of specific psychiatric diseases” (Moir & Jessel, 1991).
Family Dynamics
Family systems theory describes the development of schizophrenia as it evolves out of a dysfunctional family system. Conflict between spouses drives one parent to become attached to the child. This overinvestment in the child redirects the focus of anxiety in the family, and a more stable condition results. A symbiotic relationship develops between parent and child; the child remains totally dependent on the parent into adulthood and is unable to respond to the demands of adult functioning.
Interpersonal theory relates that the psychotic person is the product of a parent/child relationship fraught with intense anxiety. The child receives confusing and conflicting messages from the parent and is unable to establish trust. High levels of anxiety are maintained, and the child’s concept of self is one of ambiguity. A retreat into psychosis offers relief from anxiety and security from intimate relatedness. Some research indicates that clients who live with families high in expressed emotion (e.g., hostility, criticism, disappointment, overprotectiveness, and overinvolvement) show more frequent relapses than clients who live with families who are low in expressed emotion.
Current research of genetic and biological influences suggests that these family interactions are more likely to be contributing factors to rather than the cause of the disorder.
CLIENT ASSESSMENT DATA BASE
General
Activity/Rest
Interruption of sleep by hallucinations and delusional thoughts, early awakening, insomnia, and hyperactivity (e.g., pacing)
Hygiene
Poor personal hygiene, unkempt/disheveled appearance
Neurosensory
History of alteration in functioning for at least 6 months, including an active phase of at least 2 weeks in which psychotic symptoms were evident
Family reports of psychological symptoms (primarily in thought and perception) and deterioration from previous level of adaptive functioning
Mental Status:
Thought: Delusions, loose association
Perception: Hallucinations, illusions
Affect: Blunted, flat, inappropriate, incongruous, or silly
Volition: Cannot self-initiate or participate in goal-oriented activity
Capacity to Relate to Environment: Mental/emotional withdrawal and isolation (autism) and/or psychomotor activity ranging from marked reduction to stereotypic, purposeless activity
Speech: Frequently incoherent, echolalia may be noted/alogia (inability to speak) may occur
Delusions:
Disorganized type—Fragmentary delusions or hallucinations (disorganized,
unthematized [without theme] content) common; systematized delusions absent
Paranoid type—One or more systematized delusions with prominent persecutory or
grandiose content; delusional jealousy may occur
Undifferentiated type—Delusions prominent
Behaviors: Grimaces, mannerisms, hypochondriacal complaints, extreme social withdrawal, and other odd behaviors
Negativism: Resistance to all directions or attempts to move without apparent motive
Rigidity: Rigid posture maintained despite attempts to move client
Excitement: Purposeless motor activity not caused by external stimuli
Posturing: Voluntarily assuming inappropriate or bizarre posture
Emotions: Unfocused anxiety, anger, argumentativeness, and violence
Teaching/Learning
May have had previous acute episodes with impairment ranging from none to severe deterioration requiring institutionalization
Onset of symptoms most commonly occurring between the late teens and mid-30s
Correlations with family history of psychiatric illness; lower socioeconomic groups, higher stressors; premorbid personality described as suspicious, introverted, withdrawn, or eccentric
Disorganized
Neurosensory
Speech disorganized, communication consistently incoherent
Behavior regressive/primitive, incoherent, and grossly disorganized
Psychomotor: Stupor, markedly decreased reactivity to milieu, and/or reduced spontaneity of movement/activity or mutism
Affect: Incoherent, flat, incongruent, silly
Social Interactions
Extreme social impairment/withdrawal; odd mannersisms
Poor premorbid personality
Teaching/Learning
Chronic course with no significant remissions
Catatonic
(Although common several decades ago, incidence has decreased markedly with the advent of antipsychotic medications.)
Activity/Rest
Marked psychomotor retardation or excessive/purposeless motor activity
Exhaustion (extreme agitation)
Food/Fluid
Weight below norms; other signs of malnutrition
Neurosensory
Marked psychomotor disturbance (e.g., stupor, rigidity, mutism or excitement, negativism, waxy flexibility, and/or posturing)
Speech: Echolalia or echopraxia
Safety
Possible violence to self/others (during catatonic stupor or excitement)
Teaching/Learning
Possible hypochondriacal complaints or oddities of behavior
Paranoid
(Absence of symptoms characteristic of disorganized and catatonic types.)
Neurosensory
Systematized delusions and/or auditory hallucinations of a persecutory or grandiose nature, usually related to a single theme
Safety
Easily agitated, assaultive, and violent (if delusions are acted on)
Impairment in functioning (may be minimal), with gross disorganization of behavior (relatively rare)
Social Interactions
Significant impairment may be noted in social/marital areas
Affective responsiveness may be preserved but often with a stilted, formal quality or extreme intensity in interpersonal interactions
Sexuality
May express doubts about gender identity (e.g., fear of being thought of as, or approached by, a homosexual)
Teaching/Learning
Other family members may have history of paranoid problems
Undifferentiated
(This category is used when illness does not meet the criteria for the other specific types of schizophrenias, illness meets the criteria for more than one, or course of the last episode is unknown.)
Neurosensory
Prominent delusions/hallucinations, incoherence, and grossly disorganized behaviors
Residual
Neurosensory
Inappropriate affect
Social Interactions
Social withdrawal, eccentric behavior
Teaching/Learning
History of at least one episode of schizophrenia in which psychotic symptoms were evident, but the current clinical picture presents no psychotic symptoms
DIAGNOSTIC STUDIES
(Usually done to rule out physical illness, which may cause reversible symptoms such as: toxic/deficiency states, infections, neurological disease, endocrine/metabolic disorders.)
CT Scan: May show subtle abnormalities of brain structures in some schizophrenics (e.g., atrophy of temporal lobes); enlarged ventricles with increased ventricle-brain ratio may correlate with degree of symptoms displayed.
Positron Emission Tomography (PET) Scan: Measures the metabolic activity of specific areas of the brain and may reveal low metabolic activity in the frontal lobes, especially in the prefrontal area of the cerebral cortex.
MRI: Provides a three-dimensional image of the brain; may reveal smaller than average frontal lobes, atrophy of left temporal lobe (specifically anterior hippocampus, parahippocampogyrus, and superior temporal gyrus).
Regional Cerebral Blood Flow (RCBF): Maps blood flow and implies the intensity of activity in various brain regions.
Brain Electrical Activity Mapping (BEAM): Shows brain wave responses to various stimuli with delayed and decreased response noted, particularly in left temporal lobe and associated limbic system.
Addiction Severity Index (ASI): Determines problems of addiction (substance abuse), which may be associated with mental illness, and indicates areas of treatment
need.
Psychological Testing (e.g., MMPI): Reveals impairment in one or more areas. Note: Paranoid type usually shows little or no impairment.
NURSING PRIORITIES
1. Promote appropriate interaction between client and environment.
2. Enhance physiological stability/health maintenance.
3. Provide protection; ensure safety needs.
4. Encourage family/significant other(s) to become involved in activities to promote independent, satisfying lives.
DISCHARGE CRITERIA
1. Physiological well-being maintained with appropriate balance between rest and activity.
2. Demonstrates increasing/highest level of emotional responsiveness possible.
3. Interacts socially without decompensation.
4. Family displays effective coping skills and appropriate use of resources.
5. Plan in place to meet needs after discharge.
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